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1 developed width
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2 gestreckte Breite
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3 poco común
adj.uncommon, unusual, rare, one in a million.* * *(adj.) = rare, unfamiliar, unusual, uncommon, unordinary, out of the ordinaryEx. In practice critical abstracts are rare, and certainly do not usually feature in published secondary services.Ex. We are used to background noise in air conditioned buildings but the introduction of additional and unfamiliar sounds from AV equipment may be disturbing.Ex. If the book has an unusual shape then both the height and the width of the book will be given.Ex. Early woodcut initials, coats of arms, etc., were sometimes made from wood cut across the grain, but the use of end-grain blocks remained uncommon until the later eighteenth century.Ex. He developed an alternative and unordinary way of talking about out thoughts.Ex. In the past, there was a tendency to label a person as abnormal simply because he or she possessed traits that were considered out of the ordinary.* * *(adj.) = rare, unfamiliar, unusual, uncommon, unordinary, out of the ordinaryEx: In practice critical abstracts are rare, and certainly do not usually feature in published secondary services.
Ex: We are used to background noise in air conditioned buildings but the introduction of additional and unfamiliar sounds from AV equipment may be disturbing.Ex: If the book has an unusual shape then both the height and the width of the book will be given.Ex: Early woodcut initials, coats of arms, etc., were sometimes made from wood cut across the grain, but the use of end-grain blocks remained uncommon until the later eighteenth century.Ex: He developed an alternative and unordinary way of talking about out thoughts.Ex: In the past, there was a tendency to label a person as abnormal simply because he or she possessed traits that were considered out of the ordinary. -
4 Goulding, John
SUBJECT AREA: Textiles[br]b. 1791 Massachusetts, USA d. 1877[br]American inventor of an early form of condenser carding machine.[br]The condenser method of spinning was developed chiefly by manufacturers and machine makers in eastern Massachusetts between 1824 and 1826. John Goulding, a machinist from Dedham in Massachusetts, combined the ring doffer, patented by Ezekiel Hale in 1825, and the revolving twist tube, patented by George Danforth in 1824; with the addition of twisting keys in the tubes, the carded woollen sliver could be divided and then completely and continuously twisted. He divided the carded web longitudinally with the ring doffer and twisted these strips to consolidate them into slubbings. The dividing was carried out by covering the periphery of the doffer cylinder with separate rings of card clothing and spacing these rings apart by rings of leather, so that instead of width-way detached strips leaving the card, the strips were continuous and did not require piecing. The strips were passed through rotating tubes and wound on bobbins, and although the twist was false it sufficed to compress the fibres together ready for spinning. Goulding patented his invention in both Britain and the USA in 1826, but while his condensers were very successful and within twenty years had been adopted by a high proportion of woollen mills in America, they were not adopted in Britain until much later. Goulding also worked on other improvements to woollen machinery: he developed friction drums, on which the spools of roving from the condenser cards were placed to help transform the woollen jenny into the woollen mule or jack.[br]Bibliography1826, British patent no. 5,355 (condenser carding machine).Further ReadingD.J.Jeremy, 1981, Transatlantic Industrial Revolution. The Diffusion of Textile Technologies Between Britain and America, 1790–1830s, Oxford (provides a good explanation of the development of the condenser card).W.English, 1969, The Textile Industry, London (a brief account).C.Singer (ed.), 1958, A History of Technology, Vol. IV, Oxford: Clarendon Press (a brief account).RLH -
5 Poniatoff, Alexander Mathew
[br]b. 25 March 1892 Kazan District, Russiad. 24 October 1980[br]Russian (naturalized American in 1932) electrical engineer responsible for the development of the professional tape recorder and the first commercially-successful video tape recorder (VTR).[br]Poniatoff was educated at the University of Kazan, the Imperial College in Moscow, and the Technische Hochschule in Karlsruhe, gaining degrees in mechanical and electrical engineering. He was in Germany when the First World War broke out, but he managed to escape back to Russia, where he served as an Air Force pilot with the Imperial Russian Navy. During the Russian Revolution he was a pilot with the White Russian Forces, and escaped into China in 1920; there he found work as an assistant engineer in the Shanghai Power Company. In 1927 he immigrated to the USA, becoming a US citizen in 1932. He obtained a post in the research and development department of the General Electric Company in Schenectady, New York, and later at Dalmo Victor, San Carlos, California. During the Second World War he was involved in the development of airborne radar for the US Navy.In 1944, taking his initials to form the title, Poniatoff founded the AMPEX Corporation to manufacture components for the airborne radar developed at General Electric, but in 1946 he turned to the production of audio tape recorders developed from the German wartime Telefunken Magnetophon machine (the first tape recorder in the truest sense). In this he was supported by the entertainer Bing Crosby, who needed high-quality replay facilities for broadcasting purposes, and in 1947 he was able to offer a professional-quality product and the business prospered.With the rapid post-war boom in television broadcasting in the USA, a need soon arose for a video recorder to provide "time-shifting" of live TV programmes between the different US time zones. Many companies therefore endeavoured to produce a video tape recorder (VTR) using the same single-track, fixed-head, longitudinal-scan system used for audio, but the very much higher bandwidth required involved an unacceptably high tape-speed. AMPEX attempted to solve the problem by using twelve parallel tracks and a machine was demonstrated in 1952, but it proved unsatisfactory.The development team, which included Charles Ginsburg and Ray Dolby, then devised a four-head transverse-scan system in which a quadruplex head rotating at 14,400 rpm was made to scan across the width of a 2 in. (5 cm) tape with a tape-to-head speed of the order of 160 ft/sec (about 110 mph; 49 m/sec or 176 km/h) but with a longitudinal tape speed of only 15 in./sec (0.38 m/sec). In this way, acceptable picture quality was obtained with an acceptable tape consumption. Following a public demonstration on 14 April 1956, commercial produc-tion of studio-quality machines began to revolutionize the production and distribution of TV programmes, and the perfecting of time-base correctors which could stabilize the signal timing to a few nanoseconds made colour VTRs a practical proposition. However, AMPEX did not rest on its laurels and in the face of emerging competition from helical scan machines, where the tracks are laid diagonally on the tape, the company was able to demonstrate its own helical machine in 1957. Another development was the Videofile system, in which 250,000 pages of facsimile could be recorded on a single tape, offering a new means of archiving information. By 1986, quadruplex VTRs were obsolete, but Poniatoff's role in making television recording possible deserves a place in history.Poniatoff was President of AMPEX Corporation until 1955 and then became Chairman of the Board, a position he held until 1970.[br]Further ReadingA.Abrahamson, 1953, "A short history of television recording", Part I, JSMPTE 64:73; 1973, Part II, Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, 82:188 (provides a fuller background).Audio Biographies, 1961, ed. G.A.Briggs, Wharfedale Wireless Works, pp. 255–61 (contains a few personal details about Poniatoff's escape from Germany to join the Russian Navy).E.Larsen, 1971, A History of Invention.Charles Ginsburg, 1981, "The horse or the cowboy. Getting television on tape", Journal of the Royal Television Society 18:11 (a brief account of the AMPEX VTR story).KF / GB-NBiographical history of technology > Poniatoff, Alexander Mathew
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6 WD
1) Компьютерная техника: Working Directory2) Американизм: Working Draft4) Военный термин: Water Displacer, Weapon Damage, Western district, Working Dog, war damage, war diary, weapon data, weapon delivery, weapons director, weather division, when directed, wind direction, work directive5) Техника: waste disposal, watt demand meter, wire detection, word display6) Шутливое выражение: Wicked Doofus, Wolf's Dragoons7) Химия: Water Dispersant, Water Dry8) Математика: распределение Вейбулла (Weibull distribution)9) Ветеринария: Weiner Dog10) Политика: Wilson Democrat11) Сокращение: War Department, Warning Display, White Dwarf, width, window dimension, wood door12) Физика: Weak Dipole13) Физиология: Well Developed14) Вычислительная техника: Winchester drive, накопитель типа "винчестер", White Dwarf (Space), Western Digital (corporation, Hersteller), western digital15) Нефть: water depth, water disposal (well)16) Транспорт: Water Displacing, Way Delayed, Wide Differential17) Пищевая промышленность: Well Dressings18) Деловая лексика: When Distributed, Without Duplicate19) Бурение: скважина для сброса сточных вод (water disposal)20) Программирование: Write Data21) Автоматика: whole depth22) Океанография: Water Dispersal, Water Displacement23) Сахалин Ю: potable water24) Макаров: wet drifter25) Расширение файла: Write Direct, Data file (InfoSelect)26) Собаководство: Winner's Dog27) Электротехника: wiring diagram28) Имена и фамилии: Wilmer Davis, Wylie Dufresne29) Правительство: Wisconsin Dells, Wisconsin30) СМС: What Doing -
7 Wd
1) Компьютерная техника: Working Directory2) Американизм: Working Draft4) Военный термин: Water Displacer, Weapon Damage, Western district, Working Dog, war damage, war diary, weapon data, weapon delivery, weapons director, weather division, when directed, wind direction, work directive5) Техника: waste disposal, watt demand meter, wire detection, word display6) Шутливое выражение: Wicked Doofus, Wolf's Dragoons7) Химия: Water Dispersant, Water Dry8) Математика: распределение Вейбулла (Weibull distribution)9) Ветеринария: Weiner Dog10) Политика: Wilson Democrat11) Сокращение: War Department, Warning Display, White Dwarf, width, window dimension, wood door12) Физика: Weak Dipole13) Физиология: Well Developed14) Вычислительная техника: Winchester drive, накопитель типа "винчестер", White Dwarf (Space), Western Digital (corporation, Hersteller), western digital15) Нефть: water depth, water disposal (well)16) Транспорт: Water Displacing, Way Delayed, Wide Differential17) Пищевая промышленность: Well Dressings18) Деловая лексика: When Distributed, Without Duplicate19) Бурение: скважина для сброса сточных вод (water disposal)20) Программирование: Write Data21) Автоматика: whole depth22) Океанография: Water Dispersal, Water Displacement23) Сахалин Ю: potable water24) Макаров: wet drifter25) Расширение файла: Write Direct, Data file (InfoSelect)26) Собаководство: Winner's Dog27) Электротехника: wiring diagram28) Имена и фамилии: Wilmer Davis, Wylie Dufresne29) Правительство: Wisconsin Dells, Wisconsin30) СМС: What Doing -
8 wd
1) Компьютерная техника: Working Directory2) Американизм: Working Draft4) Военный термин: Water Displacer, Weapon Damage, Western district, Working Dog, war damage, war diary, weapon data, weapon delivery, weapons director, weather division, when directed, wind direction, work directive5) Техника: waste disposal, watt demand meter, wire detection, word display6) Шутливое выражение: Wicked Doofus, Wolf's Dragoons7) Химия: Water Dispersant, Water Dry8) Математика: распределение Вейбулла (Weibull distribution)9) Ветеринария: Weiner Dog10) Политика: Wilson Democrat11) Сокращение: War Department, Warning Display, White Dwarf, width, window dimension, wood door12) Физика: Weak Dipole13) Физиология: Well Developed14) Вычислительная техника: Winchester drive, накопитель типа "винчестер", White Dwarf (Space), Western Digital (corporation, Hersteller), western digital15) Нефть: water depth, water disposal (well)16) Транспорт: Water Displacing, Way Delayed, Wide Differential17) Пищевая промышленность: Well Dressings18) Деловая лексика: When Distributed, Without Duplicate19) Бурение: скважина для сброса сточных вод (water disposal)20) Программирование: Write Data21) Автоматика: whole depth22) Океанография: Water Dispersal, Water Displacement23) Сахалин Ю: potable water24) Макаров: wet drifter25) Расширение файла: Write Direct, Data file (InfoSelect)26) Собаководство: Winner's Dog27) Электротехника: wiring diagram28) Имена и фамилии: Wilmer Davis, Wylie Dufresne29) Правительство: Wisconsin Dells, Wisconsin30) СМС: What Doing -
9 dyeing
1. крашение, окрашивание; 2. окраска; выкраска @dyeing at boil крашение на кипу @dyeing for subsequent printing крашение под печать или под набивку @dyeing in open beck крашение в открытой красильной барке @dyeing in open-width крашение врасправку @dyeing in ribbons крашение в топсе или ленте @dyeing of cheeses крашение пряжи в куличах @dyeing of ground крашение грунта или фона @dyeing of piece goods крашение кускового товара @dyeing of raw stock крашение в волокне @dyeing of threads крашение ниток @dyeing of warps крашение основ @dyeing of warps in chains крашение основ жгутом @dyeing of whites подцвечивание отбелённых изделий @dyeing to shade крашение под тон @absorption dyeing абсорбционное крашение @acid dyeing кислотное крашение @acid leuco dyeing лейкокислотное крашение @anionic-agent-assisted dyeing крашение с применением анионного поверхностноактивного вещества @bale dyeing крашение суровья @basic dyeing основное крашение @batch dyeing партионное крашение @beam dyeing крашение основы на навоях или сновальных валиках @box dyeing крашение в барке @burl dyeing дополнительное крашение ткани, засорённой узелками, растительными примесями или мушками @cake dyeing крашение пряжи в куличах @calcomet dyeing крашение по способу "калькомет" @carrier dyeing крашение с ускорителями @cationic-agent-assisted dyeing крашение с применением катионного поверхностноактивного вещества @chain dyeing 1. непрерывное или проходное крашение; 2. крашение основы @chromate dyeing хромовое крашение @chrome dyeing хромировочное крашение @chrome mordant dyeing хромировочное протравное крашение @color-band dyeing пигментное крашение с применением связующих веществ @commercial boil dyeing крашение на кипу в производственных условиях @condensation dyeing конденсационное крашение @continuous dyeing непрерывное или проходное крашение @continuous горе dyeing непрерывное или проходное крашение жгутом @cross dyeing однованное крашение изделий из смешанных волокон @developed dyeing крашение с проявлением на волокне @differential dyeing избирательное окрашивание @direct dyeing прямое или субстантивное крашение @discharge dyeing резервное крашение @disperse dyeing дисперсное крашение @dispersing dyeing дисперсное крашение @double dyeing двухванное крашение @double-bath dyeing двухванное крашение @exhaust dyeing крашение до истощения ванны @fabric dyeing 1. крашение ткани; 2. крашение кускового товара @fluidized bed dyeing крашение в нагретом слое сыпучих веществ (песка, стеклянных бус) @fluorescent dyeing крашение флуоресцирующими красителями @foam dyeing крашение в мыльной пене @foulard dyeing крашение на плюсовке @garment dyeing крашение штучных изделий @grease dyeing крашение замасленного суровья @gum dyeing крашение шёлка-сырца @high-temperature dyeing крашение при высокой температуре @ice dyeing ледяное крашение @internal dyeing крашение в прядильном растворе @jig dyeing крашение на роликовой красильной машине @jigger dyeing крашение на роликовой красильной машине @lар dyeing крашение холста @level dyeing эгализированное крашение @loose cotton dyeing крашение хлопкового волокна в массе @loose wool dyeing крашение шерсти в волокне @machine dyeing 1. механическое крашение; 2. аппаратное крашение @metachrome dyeing метахромовое крашение @mordant dyeing протравное крашение @ombre dyeing разнооттеночное крашение, крашение по способу "омбре" @one-bath dyeing однованное крашение @one-bath dyeing of unions однованное крашение изделии из смешанных волокон @over dyeing последующее покрывное или групповое крашение @pack dyeing крашение пряжи на паковках @pad dyeing крашение на плюсовке @piece dyeing крашение кускового товара @pigment dyeing пигментное крашение @pressure dyeing крашение под давлением @random dyeing многооттеночное крашение, крашение по способу "шенье" @raw stock dyeing крашение волокна в массе @reactive dyeing реактивное крашение @resin-bonded pigment dyeing пигментное крашение с применением связующих смол @resist dyeing резервное крашение @reverse dyeing покрывное или групповое крашение (в обратной последовательности) @rope dyeing крашение жгутом @sandocryl dyeing фирм. крашение "сандокрил" (волокон из акрилонитрила в присутствии одновалентного иона меди) @single-bath dyeing однованное крашение @skein dyeing крашение в мотках @sliver dyeing 1. крашение ленты; 2. крашение волокна в ленте @slub dyeing крашение ровницы @solution dyeing пигментация прядильного раствора @space dyeing многооттеночное крашение, крашение по способу "шенье" @speck dyeing 1. крапчатое крашение; 2. крашение изделий из смешанных волокон @spray dyeing аэрографная расцветка ткани @star-frame dyeing крашение на звёздной раме @stock dyeing 1. крашение волокна в массе; 2. крашение в прядильном растворе @strip dyeing крашение деталей одежды @submerged beam dyeing крашение основы на навоях или сновальных валиках методом погружения @sulphide dyeing сернистое крашение @sulphur dyeing сернистое крашение @surface-active dyeing крашение с применением поверхностноактивного вещества @suspension dyeing суспензионное крашение @swatch dyeing крашение образцов @thermaline dyeing фирм. крашение полушерстяных тканей по способу "термалин" @tie dyeing многооттеночное крашение, крашение по способу "шенье" @top-chrome dyeing крашение с последующим хромированием @two-bath dyeing двухванное крашение @union dyeing крашение изделий из смешанных волокон @vat dyeing кубовое крашение @vat acid dyeing кубовое крашение по лейкокислотному способу @vat colour dyeing крашение кубовыми красителями @viscose rayon cake dyeing крашение вискозного шелка в куличах @weighing dyeing привесное крашение @yarn dyeing крашение пряжи @yarn package dyeing крашение пряжи на паковках @ -
10 dyeing
1. крашение, окрашивание; 2. окраска; выкраска @dyeing at boil крашение на кипу @dyeing for subsequent printing крашение под печать или под набивку @dyeing in open beck крашение в открытой красильной барке @dyeing in open-width крашение врасправку @dyeing in ribbons крашение в топсе или ленте @dyeing of cheeses крашение пряжи в куличах @dyeing of ground крашение грунта или фона @dyeing of piece goods крашение кускового товара @dyeing of raw stock крашение в волокне @dyeing of threads крашение ниток @dyeing of warps крашение основ @dyeing of warps in chains крашение основ жгутом @dyeing of whites подцвечивание отбелённых изделий @dyeing to shade крашение под тон @absorption dyeing абсорбционное крашение @acid dyeing кислотное крашение @acid leuco dyeing лейкокислотное крашение @anionic-agent-assisted dyeing крашение с применением анионного поверхностноактивного вещества @bale dyeing крашение суровья @basic dyeing основное крашение @batch dyeing партионное крашение @beam dyeing крашение основы на навоях или сновальных валиках @box dyeing крашение в барке @burl dyeing дополнительное крашение ткани, засорённой узелками, растительными примесями или мушками @cake dyeing крашение пряжи в куличах @calcomet dyeing крашение по способу "калькомет" @carrier dyeing крашение с ускорителями @cationic-agent-assisted dyeing крашение с применением катионного поверхностноактивного вещества @chain dyeing 1. непрерывное или проходное крашение; 2. крашение основы @chromate dyeing хромовое крашение @chrome dyeing хромировочное крашение @chrome mordant dyeing хромировочное протравное крашение @color-band dyeing пигментное крашение с применением связующих веществ @commercial boil dyeing крашение на кипу в производственных условиях @condensation dyeing конденсационное крашение @continuous dyeing непрерывное или проходное крашение @continuous горе dyeing непрерывное или проходное крашение жгутом @cross dyeing однованное крашение изделий из смешанных волокон @developed dyeing крашение с проявлением на волокне @differential dyeing избирательное окрашивание @direct dyeing прямое или субстантивное крашение @discharge dyeing резервное крашение @disperse dyeing дисперсное крашение @dispersing dyeing дисперсное крашение @double dyeing двухванное крашение @double-bath dyeing двухванное крашение @exhaust dyeing крашение до истощения ванны @fabric dyeing 1. крашение ткани; 2. крашение кускового товара @fluidized bed dyeing крашение в нагретом слое сыпучих веществ (песка, стеклянных бус) @fluorescent dyeing крашение флуоресцирующими красителями @foam dyeing крашение в мыльной пене @foulard dyeing крашение на плюсовке @garment dyeing крашение штучных изделий @grease dyeing крашение замасленного суровья @gum dyeing крашение шёлка-сырца @high-temperature dyeing крашение при высокой температуре @ice dyeing ледяное крашение @internal dyeing крашение в прядильном растворе @jig dyeing крашение на роликовой красильной машине @jigger dyeing крашение на роликовой красильной машине @lар dyeing крашение холста @level dyeing эгализированное крашение @loose cotton dyeing крашение хлопкового волокна в массе @loose wool dyeing крашение шерсти в волокне @machine dyeing 1. механическое крашение; 2. аппаратное крашение @metachrome dyeing метахромовое крашение @mordant dyeing протравное крашение @ombre dyeing разнооттеночное крашение, крашение по способу "омбре" @one-bath dyeing однованное крашение @one-bath dyeing of unions однованное крашение изделии из смешанных волокон @over dyeing последующее покрывное или групповое крашение @pack dyeing крашение пряжи на паковках @pad dyeing крашение на плюсовке @piece dyeing крашение кускового товара @pigment dyeing пигментное крашение @pressure dyeing крашение под давлением @random dyeing многооттеночное крашение, крашение по способу "шенье" @raw stock dyeing крашение волокна в массе @reactive dyeing реактивное крашение @resin-bonded pigment dyeing пигментное крашение с применением связующих смол @resist dyeing резервное крашение @reverse dyeing покрывное или групповое крашение (в обратной последовательности) @rope dyeing крашение жгутом @sandocryl dyeing фирм. крашение "сандокрил" (волокон из акрилонитрила в присутствии одновалентного иона меди) @single-bath dyeing однованное крашение @skein dyeing крашение в мотках @sliver dyeing 1. крашение ленты; 2. крашение волокна в ленте @slub dyeing крашение ровницы @solution dyeing пигментация прядильного раствора @space dyeing многооттеночное крашение, крашение по способу "шенье" @speck dyeing 1. крапчатое крашение; 2. крашение изделий из смешанных волокон @spray dyeing аэрографная расцветка ткани @star-frame dyeing крашение на звёздной раме @stock dyeing 1. крашение волокна в массе; 2. крашение в прядильном растворе @strip dyeing крашение деталей одежды @submerged beam dyeing крашение основы на навоях или сновальных валиках методом погружения @sulphide dyeing сернистое крашение @sulphur dyeing сернистое крашение @surface-active dyeing крашение с применением поверхностноактивного вещества @suspension dyeing суспензионное крашение @swatch dyeing крашение образцов @thermaline dyeing фирм. крашение полушерстяных тканей по способу "термалин" @tie dyeing многооттеночное крашение, крашение по способу "шенье" @top-chrome dyeing крашение с последующим хромированием @two-bath dyeing двухванное крашение @union dyeing крашение изделий из смешанных волокон @vat dyeing кубовое крашение @vat acid dyeing кубовое крашение по лейкокислотному способу @vat colour dyeing крашение кубовыми красителями @viscose rayon cake dyeing крашение вискозного шелка в куличах @weighing dyeing привесное крашение @yarn dyeing крашение пряжи @yarn package dyeing крашение пряжи на паковках @ -
11 surface
1) надпочвенный2) наземный3) поверхность || поверхностный; приповерхностный4) горн. дневная поверхность5) площадь; покрытие•- assembly datum surface - bivariate normal surface - completely ramified surface - double curved surface - double ruled surface - heat exchange surface - heat transfer surface - locally polyhedral surface - semilocally one-connected surface - surface of constant width - surface of negative curvature - surface of nonnegative curvature - surface of parabolic type - surface of positive total curvature - surface of zeroth kind -
12 Blanket Shawls Or Rugs
Fabrics made of two-fold cotton warp and woollen weft in length from 60-in. X 64-in. to 68-in. X 76-in. for the natives of West and East Africa and some South American markets. They are woven from simple twill and sateen weaves and made reversible. The designs are mostly conventional and developed in coloured wefts. There will be a dark figure on a light ground on one side, and this will be reversed on the other. All qualities are shipped in both fine and coarse wools. During finishing the fabric shrinks from 10 to 30 per cent. in width, according to the type of wool weft used, and are raised to give a pile surface.Dictionary of the English textile terms > Blanket Shawls Or Rugs
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13 Carpets
The principal types are Axminster, Brussels and Wilton, and brief particulars of each are given below. A more detailed description is given under each name. Axminster is a cut fabric made any width and with any number of colours. It is not produced on a jacquard, therefore the pile does not show on the back. The design is developed by a series of tufts which are bound into the fabric, every tuft is on the surface and only the foundation cloth is seen at the back. There are two principal varieties of these carpets, the Chenille Axminster and the Machine tufted Axminster. The Chenille type is made by two distinct operations, that of manufacturing the chenille weft and that of weaving the carpet with this weft. The " fur or chenille is first woven on an ordinary loom (see chenille) and when cut into the strips is used as weft with a linen, jute or folded cotton warp. The chenille is made preferably with the leno way of shedding in order to bind the wool yarn more firmly. All the figuring weft is on the surface and not embedded in the fabric. The chenille weft is often inserted by hand, but several mechanical methods for doing the work are now in use. From three to six tufts per inch are usual. The chenille Axminster Carpet is also known as the Patent Axminster carpet. The machine-tufted type or Royal Axminster is also formed from pile tufts previously prepared and afterwards woven in the ground warp and bound into the fabric with a binding weft. The tufts may be inserted by hand and the pile is all on the surface of the fabric. This pile is a warp product, whereas for the chenille variety it is weft. Axminster carpets are a product of skill and patience and any number of colours can be used. There are several varieties of machine-made axminster carpets. Wilton is a cut pile fabric woven 27-in. wide from not more than six colours, the yarns are fine counts and design produced by jacquards. Brussels is made almost in the same way as a Wilton, but the pile is not cut and this shows as loops on the face. The yarn is much coarser than for Wiltons. Kidderminster - A carpet made from two or more plain cloths woven together. Each cloth is brought on the face for figuring as required. Turkish - These are hand made. The pile is put into the ground warp by hand as tufts and knotted round them according to pattern. There are two picks of ground weft between each row of pile. Tapestry - Carpets woven from printed warps. The pile is cut or left uncut as required for the design. Persian - Carpets similar to Turkish, being hand made. See also Axminster, Brussels, Kidderminster, Persian Tapestry, Turkish, Wilton Carpets, Body Brussels, Brusselette, Ingrain. -
14 Coutil
A strong herringbone twill cloth used for corset making. A standard cloth is 34-in., 100 yards, 96 ends and 64 picks per inch, 22's T., 22's W., 31-lb., and in 56-in. width 511/2-lb., woven in a dobby loom on six shafts. The cloth is dyed drab or French grey. Tinted yarn is used for some cloths, generally French or silver grey. A large trade has developed in coutils made from ring yarns, dyed pink. These yam-dyed fabrics are very firm and possess good wearing properties. Fig. A illustrates the weave on 16 ends and Fig. B on 32 ends. One quality is made 124 ends and 100 picks per inch, 2/80's warp, 2/100's weft (see also Broche Coutils)
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15 Anschütz, Ottomar
SUBJECT AREA: Photography, film and optics[br]b. 1846 Lissa, Prussia (now Leszno, Poland) d. 1907[br]German photographer, chronophotographer ana inventor.[br]The son of a commercial photographer, Anschütz entered the business in 1868 and developed an interest in the process of instantaneous photography. The process was very difficult with the contemporary wet-plate process, but with the introduction of the much faster dry plates in the late 1870s he was able to make progress. Anschütz designed a focal plane shutter capable of operating at speeds up to 1/1000 of a second in 1883, and patented his design in 1888. it involved a vertically moving fabric roller-blind that worked at a fixed tension but had a slit the width of which could be adjusted to alter the exposure time. This design was adopted by C.P.Goerz, who from 1890 manufactures a number of cameras that incorporated it.Anschütz's action pictures of flying birds and animals attracted the attention of the Prussian authorities, and in 1886 the Chamber of Deputies authorized financial support for him to continue his work, which had started at the Hanover Military Institute in October 1885. Inspired by the work of Eadweard Muybridge in America, Anschütz had set up rows of cameras whose focal-plane shutters were released in sequence by electromagnets, taking twenty-four pictures in about three-quarters of a second. He made a large number of studies of the actions of people, animals and birds, and at the Krupp artillery range at Meppen, near Essen, he recorded shells in flight. His pictures were reproduced, and favourably commented upon, in scientific and photographic journals.To bring the pictures to the public, in 1887 he created the Electro-Tachyscope. The sequence negatives were printed as 90 x 120 mm transparencies and fixed around the circumference of a large steel disc. This was rotated in front of a spirally wound Geissler tube, which produced a momentary brilliant flash of light when a high voltage from an induction coil was applied to it, triggered by contacts on the steel disc. The flash duration, about 1/1000 of a second, was so short that it "froze" each picture as it passed the tube. The pictures succeeded each other at intervals of about 1/30 of a second, and the observer saw an apparently continuously lit moving picture. The Electro-Tachyscope was shown publicly in Berlin at the Kulturministerium from 19 to 21 March 1887; subsequently Siemens \& Halske manufactured 100 machines, which were shown throughout Europe and America in the early 1890s. From 1891 his pictures were available for the home in the form of the Tachyscope viewer, which used the principle of the zoetrope: sequence photographs were printed on long strips of thin card, perforated with narrow slots between the pictures. Placed around the circumference of a shallow cylinder and rotated, the pictures could be seen in life-like movement when viewed through the slots.In November 1894 Anschütz displayed a projector using two picture discs with twelve images each, which through a form of Maltese cross movement were rotated intermittently and alternately while a rotating shutter allowed each picture to blend with the next so that no flicker occurred. The first public shows, given in Berlin, were on a screen 6×8 m (20×26 ft) in size. From 22 February 1895 they were shown regularly to audiences of 300 in a building on the Leipzigstrasse; they were the first projected motion pictures seen in Germany.[br]Further ReadingJ.Deslandes, 1966, Histoire comparée du cinéma, Vol. I, Paris. B.Coe, 1992, Muybridge and the Chronophotographers, London.BC -
16 Goldmark, Peter Carl
[br]b. 2 December 1906 Budapest, Hungaryd. 7 December 1977 Westchester Co., New York, USA[br]Austro-Hungarian engineer who developed the first commercial colour television system and the long-playing record.[br]After education in Hungary and a period as an assistant at the Technische Hochschule, Berlin, Goldmark moved to England, where he joined Pye of Cambridge and worked on an experimental thirty-line television system using a cathode ray tube (CRT) for the display. In 1936 he moved to the USA to work at Columbia Broadcasting Laboratories. There, with monochrome television based on the CRT virtually a practical proposition, he devoted his efforts to finding a way of producing colour TV images: in 1940 he gave his first demonstration of a working system. There then followed a series of experimental field-sequential colour TV systems based on segmented red, green and blue colour wheels and drums, where the problem was to find an acceptable compromise between bandwidth, resolution, colour flicker and colour-image breakup. Eventually he arrived at a system using a colour wheel in combination with a CRT containing a panchromatic phosphor screen, with a scanned raster of 405 lines and a primary colour rate of 144 fields per second. Despite the fact that the receivers were bulky, gave relatively poor, dim pictures and used standards totally incompatible with the existing 525-line, sixty fields per second interlaced monochrome (black and white) system, in 1950 the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), anxious to encourage postwar revival of the industry, authorized the system for public broadcasting. Within eighteen months, however, bowing to pressure from the remainder of the industry, which had formed its own National Television Systems Committee (NTSC) to develop a much more satisfactory, fully compatible system based on the RCA three-gun shadowmask CRT, the FCC withdrew its approval.While all this was going on, Goldmark had also been working on ideas for overcoming the poor reproduction, noise quality, short playing-time (about four minutes) and limited robustness and life of the long-established 78 rpm 12 in. (30 cm) diameter shellac gramophone record. The recent availability of a new, more robust, plastic material, vinyl, which had a lower surface noise, enabled him in 1948 to reduce the groove width some three times to 0.003 in. (0.0762 mm), use a more lightly loaded synthetic sapphire stylus and crystal transducer with improved performance, and reduce the turntable speed to 33 1/3 rpm, to give thirty minutes of high-quality music per side. This successful development soon led to the availability of stereophonic recordings, based on the ideas of Alan Blumlein at EMI in the 1930s.In 1950 Goldmark became a vice-president of CBS, but he still found time to develop a scan conversion system for relaying television pictures to Earth from the Lunar Orbiter spacecraft. He also almost brought to the market a domestic electronic video recorder (EVR) system based on the thermal distortion of plastic film by separate luminance and coded colour signals, but this was overtaken by the video cassette recorder (VCR) system, which uses magnetic tape.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsInstitute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Morris N.Liebmann Award 1945. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Vladimir K. Zworykin Award 1961.Bibliography1951, with J.W.Christensen and J.J.Reeves, "Colour television. USA Standard", Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers 39: 1,288 (describes the development and standards for the short-lived field-sequential colour TV standard).1949, with R.Snepvangers and W.S.Bachman, "The Columbia long-playing microgroove recording system", Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers 37:923 (outlines the invention of the long-playing record).Further ReadingE.W.Herold, 1976, "A history of colour television displays", Proceedings of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 64:1,331.See also: Baird, John LogieKF -
17 Gutenberg, Johann Gensfleisch zum
SUBJECT AREA: Paper and printing[br]b. c. 1394–9 Mainz, Germanyd. 3 February 1468 Mainz, Germany[br]German inventor of printing with movable type.[br]Few biographical details are known of Johann Gensfleisch zum Gutenberg, yet it has been said that he was responsible for Germany's most notable contribution to civilization. He was a goldsmith by trade, of a patrician family of the city of Mainz. He seems to have begun experiments on printing while a political exile in Strasbourg c. 1440. He returned to Mainz between 1444 and 1448 and continued his experiments, until by 1450 he had perfected his invention sufficiently to justify raising capital for its commercial exploitation.Circumstances were propitious for the invention of printing at that time. Rises in literacy and prosperity had led to the formation of a social class with the time and resources to develop a taste for reading, and the demand for reading matter had outstripped the ability of the scribes to satisfy it. The various technologies required were well established, and finally the flourishing textile industry was producing enough waste material, rag, to make paper, the only satisfactory and cheap medium for printing. There were others working along similar lines, but it was Gutenberg who achieved the successful adaptation and combination of technologies to arrive at a process by which many identical copies of a text could be produced in a wide variety of forms, of which the book was the most important. Gutenberg did make several technical innovations, however. The two-piece adjustable mould for casting types of varying width, from T to "M", was ingenious. Then he had to devise an oil-based ink suitable for inking metal type, derived from the painting materials developed by contemporary Flemish artists. Finally, probably after many experiments, he arrived at a metal alloy of distinctive composition suitable for casting type.In 1450 Gutenberg borrowed 800 guldens from Johannes Fust, a lawyer of Mainz, and two years later Fust advanced a further 800 guldens, securing for himself a partnership in Gutenberg's business. But in 1455 Fust foreclosed and the bulk of Gutenberg's equipment passed to Peter Schöffer, who was in the service of Fust and later married his daughter. Like most early printers, Gutenberg seems not to have appreciated, or at any rate to have been able to provide for, the great dilemma of the publishing trade, namely the outlay of considerable capital in advance of each publication and the slowness of the return. Gutenberg probably retained only the type for the 42- and 36-line bibles and possibly the Catholicon of 1460, an encyclopedic work compiled in the thirteenth century and whose production pointed the way to printing's role as a means of spreading knowledge. The work concluded with a short descriptive piece, or colophon, which is probably by Gutenberg himself and is the only output of his mind that we have; it manages to omit the names of both author and printer.Gutenberg seems to have abandoned printing after 1460, perhaps due to failing eyesight as well as for financial reasons, and he suffered further loss in the sack of Mainz in 1462. He received a kind of pension from the Archbishop in 1465, and on his death was buried in the Franciscan church in Mainz. The only major work to have issued for certain from Gutenberg's workshop is the great 42-line bible, begun in 1452 and completed by August 1456. The quality of this Graaf piece of printing is a tribute to Gutenberg's ability as a printer, and the soundness of his invention is borne out by the survival of the process as he left it to the world, unchanged for over three hundred years save in minor details.[br]Further ReadingA.Ruppel, 1967, Johannes Gutenberg: sein Leben und sein Werk, 3rd edn, Nieuwkoop: B.de Graaf (the standard biography), A.M.L.de Lamartine, 1960, Gutenberg, inventeur de l'imprimerie, Tallone.Scholderer, 1963, Gutenberg, Inventor of Printing, London: British Museum.S.H.Steinberg, 1974, Five Hundred Years of Printing 3rd edn, London: Penguin (provides briefer details).LRDBiographical history of technology > Gutenberg, Johann Gensfleisch zum
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18 Heathcote, John
SUBJECT AREA: Textiles[br]b. 7 August 1783 Duffield, Derbyshire, Englandd. 18 January 1861 Tiverton, Devonshire, England[br]English inventor of the bobbin-net lace machine.[br]Heathcote was the son of a small farmer who became blind, obliging the family to move to Long Whatton, near Loughborough, c.1790. He was apprenticed to W.Shepherd, a hosiery-machine maker, and became a frame-smith in the hosiery industry. He moved to Nottingham where he entered the employment of an excellent machine maker named Elliott. He later joined William Caldwell of Hathern, whose daughter he had married. The lace-making apparatus they patented jointly in 1804 had already been anticipated, so Heathcote turned to the problem of making pillow lace, a cottage industry in which women made lace by arranging pins stuck in a pillow in the correct pattern and winding around them thread contained on thin bobbins. He began by analysing the complicated hand-woven lace into simple warp and weft threads and found he could dispense with half the bobbins. The first machine he developed and patented, in 1808, made narrow lace an inch or so wide, but the following year he made much broader lace on an improved version. In his second patent, in 1809, he could make a type of net curtain, Brussels lace, without patterns. His machine made bobbin-net by the use of thin brass discs, between which the thread was wound. As they passed through the warp threads, which were arranged vertically, the warp threads were moved to each side in turn, so as to twist the bobbin threads round the warp threads. The bobbins were in two rows to save space, and jogged on carriages in grooves along a bar running the length of the machine. As the strength of this fabric depended upon bringing the bobbin threads diagonally across, in addition to the forward movement, the machine had to provide for a sideways movement of each bobbin every time the lengthwise course was completed. A high standard of accuracy in manufacture was essential for success. Called the "Old Loughborough", it was acknowledged to be the most complicated machine so far produced. In partnership with a man named Charles Lacy, who supplied the necessary capital, a factory was established at Loughborough that proved highly successful; however, their fifty-five frames were destroyed by Luddites in 1816. Heathcote was awarded damages of £10,000 by the county of Nottingham on the condition it was spent locally, but to avoid further interference he decided to transfer not only his machines but his entire workforce elsewhere and refused the money. In a disused woollen factory at Tiverton in Devonshire, powered by the waters of the river Exe, he built 300 frames of greater width and speed. By continually making inventions and improvements until he retired in 1843, his business flourished and he amassed a large fortune. He patented one machine for silk cocoon-reeling and another for plaiting or braiding. In 1825 he brought out two patents for the mechanical ornamentation or figuring of lace. He acquired a sound knowledge of French prior to opening a steam-powered lace factory in France. The factory proved to be a successful venture that lasted many years. In 1832 he patented a monstrous steam plough that is reputed to have cost him over £12,000 and was claimed to be the best in its day. One of its stated aims was "improved methods of draining land", which he hoped would develop agriculture in Ireland. A cable was used to haul the implement across the land. From 1832 to 1859, Heathcote represented Tiverton in Parliament and, among other benefactions, he built a school for his adopted town.[br]Bibliography1804, with William Caldwell, British patent no. 2,788 (lace-making machine). 1808. British patent no. 3,151 (machine for making narrow lace).1809. British patent no. 3,216 (machine for making Brussels lace). 1813, British patent no. 3,673.1825, British patent no. 5,103 (mechanical ornamentation of lace). 1825, British patent no. 5,144 (mechanical ornamentation of lace).Further ReadingV.Felkin, 1867, History of the Machine-wrought Hosiery and Lace Manufacture, Nottingham (provides a full account of Heathcote's early life and his inventions).A.Barlow, 1878, The History and Principles of Weaving by Hand and by Power, London (provides more details of his later years).W.G.Allen, 1958 John Heathcote and His Heritage (biography).M.R.Lane, 1980, The Story of the Steam Plough Works, Fowlers of Leeds, London (for comments about Heathcote's steam plough).W.English, 1969, The Textile Industry, London, and C.Singer (ed.), 1958, A History ofTechnology, Vol. V, Oxford: Clarendon Press (both describe the lace-making machine).RLH -
19 Johnson, Thomas
SUBJECT AREA: Textiles[br]fl. 1800s Englandd. after 1846[br]English developer of the sizing and beaming machine, and improver of the hand loom.[br]Thomas Johnson was an assistant to William Radcliffe c.1802 in his developments of the sizing machine and hand looms. Johnson is described by Edward Baines (1835) as "an ingenious but dissipated young man to whom he [Radcliffe] explained what he wanted, and whose fertile invention suggested a great variety of expedients, so that he obtained the name of the “conjuror” among his fellow-workmen". Johnson's genius, and Radcliffe's judgement and perseverance, at length produced the dressing-machine that was soon applied to power looms and made their use economic. Cotton warps had to be dressed with a starch paste to prevent them from fraying as they were being woven. Up to this time, the paste had had to be applied as the warp was unwound from the back of the loom, which meant that only short lengths could be treated and then left to dry, holding up the weaver. Radcliffe carried out the dressing and beaming in a separate machine so that weaving could proceed without interruption. Work on the dressing-machine was carried out in 1802 and patents were taken out in 1803 and 1804. These were made out in Johnson's name because Radcliffe was afraid that if his own name were used other people, particularly foreigners, would discover his secrets. Two more patents were taken out for improvements to hand looms. The first of these was a take-up motion for the woven cloth that automatically wound the cloth onto a roller as the weaver operated the loom. This was later incorporated by H.Horrocks into his own power loom design.Radcliffe and Johnson also developed the "dandy-loom", which was a more compact form of hand loom and later became adapted for weaving by power. Johnson was the inventor of the first circular or revolving temples, which kept the woven cloth at the right width. In the patent specifications there is a patent in 1805 by Thomas Johnson and James Kay for an improved power loom and another in 1807 for a vertical type of power loom. Johnson could have been involved with further patents in the 1830s and 1840s for vertical power looms and dressing-machines, which would put his death after 1846.[br]Bibliography1802, British patent no. 2,684 (dressing-machine).1803, British patent no. 2,771 (dressing-machine).1805, with James Kay, British patent no. 2,876 (power-loom). 1807, British patent no. 6,570 (vertical powerloom).Further ReadingThere is no general account of Johnson's life, but references to his work with Radcliffe may be found in A.Barlow, 1878, The History and Principles of Weaving by Hand and by Power, London; and in E.Baines, 1835, History of the Cotton Manufacture in Great Britain, London.D.J.Jeremy, 1981, Transatlantic Industrial Revolution. The Diffusion of Textile Technologies Between Britain and America, 1790–1830s, Oxford (for the impact of the dressing-machine in America).RLH
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